Scott Bradford: Off on a Tangent

Tangent Style Guide (Eighth Edition)

Updated

1: Scope and Exceptions

1.1: Scope

The Tangent Style Guide (Tangent) is the prescriptive style and usage guide for Scott Bradford: Off on a Tangent. The eighth edition applies to original content published after July 1, 2020. It may be adapted for use by other websites and publications as described in Tangent 12.3.

1.2: Exceptions

Content originally written for academic purposes, or for publication elsewhere, may have been written in other styles per the requirements of the class, institution, or publication. In these cases, and in the case of content written in earlier versions of the Tangent style, content may not fully conform with this guide.

Even when these exceptions do not apply, no style guide should be followed blindly. Writers and editors must use good judgment. Knowing the rules is important, but so is knowing when to break them.

2: Style

2.1: Style guides

The following primary style guide should be considered prescriptive except where it conflicts with Tangent:

Throughout this guide, the primary style guide is referred to as Chicago. The following secondary style guides may also be consulted in the listed order of preference, but their guidance should not be considered prescriptive:

  • MLA Handbook (Ninth Edition) published by the Modern Language Association
  • A.P. Stylebook (Online Edition) published by the Associated Press

Other general purpose, topic-specific, and special-use style guides may be consulted, though their guidance should also not be considered prescriptive except as described elsewhere in Tangent.

2.2: Questions and internal discourse

(Modifies Chicago 6.42 and 13.43.)

A direct question is sometimes included within a sentence. Such a question is usually introduced by a comma (unless it comes at the beginning of a sentence), begins with a capital letter, and is enclosed in quotes. If it is necessary to distinguish a direct question from direct quotations, use single quotation marks instead of double quotation marks.

  • I asked myself, “Where did I put my phone?”
  • Writers often wonder, ‘Why is English such a difficult language?’

Thought, imagined dialogue, and other internal discourse (also called interior discourse) should also be enclosed in quotation marks. Here, too, single quotation marks may be used instead of double quotation marks if it is necessary to distinguish internal discourse from direct quotations.

  • I thought, “This has to be the right switch.”
  • ‘Why,’ he wondered, ‘would anybody park here?’

2.3: Vertical lists

(Modifies Chicago 6.130.)

Items in an unordered list should be marked by a bullet or other marker.

Capitalize items in both ordered and unordered lists except when a list is punctuated as a sentence as described in Chicago 6.131. Closing punctuation is used only if items consist of complete sentences.

2.4: Headline-style capitalization

(Modifies Chicago 8.159.)

In headlines, capitalize all words more than three letters in length, including prepositions. Words of three or fewer letters should be capitalized or lowercased as described in Chicago 8.159.

2.5: Periods with abbreviations

(Modifies Chicago 10.4.)

Use periods with abbreviations that include one or two capital letters (e.g., “U.S.”), except when appearing in parentheses as a reference to a U.S. state’s postal abbreviation, a time zone, or a political party. Use no periods with abbreviations that include three or more capital letters, even if the abbreviation also includes lowercase letters.

2.6: Bibliographies

(Clarifies and modifies Chicago 14.67-70, 14.76, and 14.207-209.)

Some of Chicago’s bibliography guidelines are adapted in Tangent for greater consistency between citation types and to improve legibility in electronic media:

  • Do not use a 3-em dash for repeated entries under the same name in a bibliography; list the authors separately in each entry.
  • For works written or edited by five or more persons, list only the first three followed by “et al.,” which is from a Latin phrase meaning “and others.”
  • If a bibliography entry includes an Internet address (URL), make the entry’s title an active link to the address. Do not append a URL in text at the end of the entry.
  • A bibliography entry for a page on a website or a post on a blog should be formatted similarly to one for a newspaper article. The title of the page or post is like a newspaper article’s headline, and the name of the website or blog is like a newspaper’s name.
  • A bibliography entry for an entire website or blog should follow the same general format as one for a book or collection of documents.

Examples of Tangent citation styles can be found in Tangent 13.

3: Usage

3.1: Usage guides

For general matters of usage, refer to Chicago’s chapter 5 and the following primary usage guide:

Throughout this guide, the primary usage guide is referred to as Garner. Guidance in Garner should be given serious consideration but is not necessarily prescriptive. For further guidance, the following secondary usage guides may be consulted in the listed order of preference, but their guidance should not be considered prescriptive:

Other general purpose, topic-specific, and special-use usage guides may be consulted, though their guidance should also not be considered prescriptive except as described elsewhere in Tangent.

3.2: Personal pronouns

(Modifies Chicago 5.43, 5.48, and 5.256.)

Male personal pronouns (he, him, his) are normally used to refer to individual male members of dioecious (two-sex) species, including humans. Female personal pronouns (she, her, hers) are normally used to refer to individual female members. Generally, the appropriate male or female personal pronouns should be used when referring to an individual whose sex is known. This usage best accords with the principle of truth and accuracy (see Tangent 5.1).

Nonstandard personal pronouns preferred by an individual person may be used if necessary but must be clearly explained to the reader. If possible, avoid nonstandard usage by using the techniques for achieving gender neutrality described in Chicago 5.255. It is now acceptable to use they, their, and theirs as gender-neutral singular pronouns, so these may also be used to avoid nonstandard pronoun usage.

See Tangent 3.4 for guidance regarding name changes and former names.

3.3: Generic masculine pronouns

(Clarifies Chicago 5.252.)

It is acceptable to use generic masculine pronouns when necessary for clarity, flow, or effect, but this should be avoided if possible. Consider using the techniques for achieving gender neutrality described in Chicago 5.255 or using they, their, and theirs as gender-neutral singular pronouns as described in Chicago 5.256 and Tangent 3.2.

3.4: Name changes and former names

(Clarifies Chicago 8.3.)

A person’s preferred name should generally be used, even if a different legal name appears in official records or has been previously used by the subject.

For private figures, legal names and unused former names should be mentioned only if necessary and relevant.

For public figures, well-known former names should be noted for the purpose of clearly informing the reader that they refer to the same person. When writing about awards, publications, film or television credits, and the like, it should be made clear under which name they originally appeared.

See Tangent 3.2 for guidance regarding individuals’ personal pronoun preferences.

3.5: Data and media are mass nouns

(Clarifies Chicago 5.250.)

Data and media are singular mass nouns and should be paired with singular verbs.

Chicago encourages the traditional plural usage in formal contexts (e.g., “the data are clear” and “the media are reporting”). Garner encourages the traditional usage only for data and accepts the mass noun form for media as standard.

Even in formal and scientific writing, avoid the archaic plural usage of these words.

4: Words and Spelling

4.1: Dictionaries

(Replaces Chicago 7.1.)

For general matters of U.S. English spelling, refer to the following primary dictionary:

Throughout this guide, the primary dictionary is referred to as Merriam-Webster.

If more than one spelling is given, or more than one form of the plural, the first form is usually preferred. A notable exception to this rule is described in Tangent 4.2. Spelling and definitions in the primary dictionary should normally be considered prescriptive but should be used in accordance with recommended usage (see Tangent 3).

For further definitions or alternative spellings, the following secondary dictionaries may be consulted in the listed order of preference, but their guidance should not be considered prescriptive:

For unusual words, rare usages, and etymological history, the following unabridged dictionaries may be consulted in the listed order of preference, but their guidance should also not be considered prescriptive:

Other general purpose, topic-specific, and special-use dictionaries may be consulted, though their guidance should also not be considered prescriptive except as described elsewhere in Tangent.

4.2: Plurals for borrowed nouns

(Modifies and clarifies Chicago 7.5-7.7.)

Nouns borrowed from other languages sometimes take their plural from the original language; for example, the plural of stimulus is stimuli. Others take only the English-style plural ending in “s,” like virus to viruses. Still others can accept both forms, like referendum to either referenda or referendums.

Other nouns were anglicized from the Romance languages but retain a postpositive adjective—attorney general, notary public, and the like. These kinds of compound nouns were traditionally made plural by making the main noun plural, so the plural of attorney general would be attorneys general and the plural of notary public would be notaries public. This form pleases linguistic pedants, but often seems incorrect or stilted to casual readers.

English-style plurals for these nouns are gaining acceptance. For example, both attorney generals and notary publics are listed in Merriam-Webster as variant plural forms. This is a good trend. “Attorney general” is, as a unit, a noun, and should be made plural by adding an “s” at the end.

Consult Merriam-Webster for guidance on these and other tricky words. When multiple forms are listed, the English-style plurals with an “s” at the end are preferred, even if listed only as variants and even if discouraged by Garner, unless their use would be generally regarded as an error. But if no English-style plural is listed in the dictionary, do not invent one.

4.3: Capitalize the word Internet

(Corrects Chicago 7.80.)

The word Internet refers to a single specific wide area network (WAN). It is a proper noun and should be capitalized (see Chicago 5.6). The word is only rarely used in a generic sense to refer to a type of WAN, which should instead be called an internetwork. The Internet is an internetwork.

Authoritative style guides, usage guides, and dictionaries are split on this subject. Among Tangent’s primary sources, Chicago endorses the lowercased form while both Garner and Merriam-Webster endorse the capitalized form (Merriam-Webster lists the lowercased form as a variant). Among the secondary style guides, the MLA Handbook is silent though its editors capitalize the word in its text, and the A.P. Stylebook agrees with Chicago that the word should be lowercased. The secondary usage guides are either silent or agree with Garner that the word should be capitalized. Most of the secondary dictionaries include both forms but list the lowercased form as primary and the capitalized form as a variant.

Common usage is shifting strongly in favor of the lowercased form, but this should be resisted. The word Internet does not refer to a general type of computer network, nor is it a generic term like “highway system” or “flood plain.” It is, in fact, the proper name of a single worldwide computer network. Tangent agrees with Garner: “The word is legitimately viewed as a proper noun.”

4.4: Color as shorthand for race or ethnicity

(Corrects Chicago 8.38.)

The names of colors are sometimes used as shorthand for racial or ethnic groups. “Black” is often used as shorthand for African or African American and “white” is often used as shorthand for European, European American, or Caucasian. “Brown” is increasingly used as shorthand for Latino, or as a catch-all term incorporating some or all African, Asian, Latino, and Middle Eastern races and ethnicities.

Historically, “yellow” has been used as shorthand for Asian or Asian American and “red” has been used as shorthand for American Indian, Native American, or Indigenous American. These terms are now considered archaic and offensive.

Reducing race or ethnicity to skin color is overly simplistic and should be avoided. It is acceptable to use color as a racial or ethnic shorthand only when it is widely accepted by members of the group in question. Because colors are not proper names for any racial or ethnic group, they are not capitalized.

4.5: Names of countries

It is normally best to use the shortest English name endorsed by a country’s sovereign government (see Tangent 6.7). The primary and secondary dictionaries may be consulted to determine proper spelling and form, as may the following additional resources:

Descriptive terms like “Democratic Republic of . . . ” and “Kingdom of . . . ” should be omitted when they do not form an integral part of a country’s name. Using these appellations uncritically may run afoul of the principle of truth and accuracy (see Tangent 5.1). If used, context should make it clear that they are not unbiased descriptors. If a country’s name is verbose, not well known, or easily confused with the name of another country, it may be preferable to use an unofficial name, but only if it is inoffensive and universally understood.

For example, the two countries claiming lineage from pre-1949 China are best called China and Taiwan. Their formal names—People’s Republic of China (PRC) and Republic of China (ROC)—are easily confused. The simpler informal names allow for clear differentiation and more accurately describe where each country is located. The formal names and initialisms may, however, be used when emphasizing their shared history and how the two modern states emerged from the Chinese Civil War.

Likewise, the two countries on the Korean Peninsula are best called North Korea and South Korea. Their formal names—Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and Republic of Korea—are also easily confused. Worse, the one with “democratic” in its name is the one that has a nondemocratic system of government, so using its official name would require additional explanatory text.

In most contexts, United Kingdom (U.K.) is preferred to describe the country officially known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. United States (U.S.) is also preferred over the longer form, United States of America (USA).

5: Credibility and Independence

5.1: Truth and accuracy

Credible nonfiction writing requires a commitment to truth and accuracy. Never sacrifice this commitment in the name of “political correctness” or in an attempt to achieve “bias-free language” (see Tangent 5.3). Make reasonable efforts to avoid unnecessary offense, but do not be afraid to write frankly and honestly. It is always better to write an offensive truth than an inoffensive lie.

5.2: Independence

Credible nonfiction writing also requires independence. Do not accept payment, goods, or services from any company, association, charity, political party, political action committee, or other group in return for favorable treatment. Promotional products may be accepted for review, but only if there are no conditions that limit the content of the review, and only if the promotional consideration is disclosed to the reader.

Works written for-hire may be republished if permitted by the owner of the work, but the conditions under which they were written should be clearly disclosed, especially if those conditions are likely to have influenced the character of the work.

Advertising can be accepted, but it should be clear what content comes from an ad and what content is formally published on the website. Advertisers should not be given any editorial control over content outside of the ads, nor should advertising considerations be permitted to influence content or publication choices. Website publishers may choose to exclude advertising categories that are likely to conflict with the content of the site or to offend or distract readers.

5.3: Bias

An important distinction must be made between two possible meanings of the word bias.

In its most pejorative sense, bias means unreasoned prejudgment, especially against individuals or groups based on race, sex, or other immutable characteristics. It is a synonym for prejudice, which is the better word to use when this sense is meant. Prejudice should be avoided in life and in writing. When Chicago and other guides encourage “bias-free language,” they are advocating language free of prejudice.

In its more common sense, bias means an inclination or tendency toward one’s own opinions, especially relating to worldview, morals, religion, and politics. This kind of bias cannot be eliminated, but, because it can undermine the writer’s credibility, it should be minimized in news and scholarly works. Even in opinion writing, take care to describe others’ opinions fairly and to present information truthfully and accurately (see Tangent 5.1).

5.4: Conflicts of interest

Potential or real conflicts of interest should be disclosed to the reader. When there is doubt about whether a potential conflict of interest exists, assume it does and disclose it. Examples of conflicts of interest include matters that have an impact on, or are directly impacted by,

  • the writer’s employment or investments;
  • the writer’s immediate or extended family’s known employment or investments; or
  • the writer’s membership in religious or secular associations.

Degrees of separation reduce the need to disclose a potential conflict of interest. For example, if a proposed law would be likely to put the writer’s employer out of business if passed, then the writer must disclose this as a potential conflict of interest when writing about that proposed law. But if a proposed law has some potential to lead to a stock market downturn that might, in turn, have a negative impact on the writer’s retirement accounts, the potential effect on the writer is far enough removed from the subject that no disclosure is necessary.

Subjects that fall somewhere in-between are more difficult to evaluate. Consider whether a neutral reader would be less likely to view the writer as credible if the potential conflict were known. If so, disclose it. It is better to disclose a potential conflict that does not really matter than to have an intrepid reader or critic discover it on their own and use it to discredit the author’s work.

5.5: Corrections

Grammar, style, and spelling corrections, and minor edits to improve clarity, do not need to be noted unless they cause a substantial change of meaning. Changes to news pieces, factual corrections to opinion pieces, and grammar, style, and spelling corrections that cause a substantial change of meaning should be clearly documented in an editor’s note.

If an error was reported by a reader, that reader should be identified and credited in the editor’s note unless they have requested anonymity. If the reader has requested anonymity, the correction should be credited to “an anonymous reader” or similar.

A post that is being updated on a live or ongoing basis should be clearly marked as such. Any post marked in this way may be updated and corrected as new information becomes available without noting each individual change. At the conclusion of the live or ongoing updates, the post should be marked as final. Any subsequent edits should be noted as described above.

6: Government, Politics, and Elections

6.1: U.S. and foreign civil titles

The civil title styles described in Chicago 8.22 are extended in Tangent. They should be used at the first reference to any elected or appointed U.S. political official who is currently serving in office, whether at the federal, state, or local level. State the official’s title and name, then parenthetically state their political party and, if applicable, the jurisdiction they represent.

Abbreviate U.S. political parties as described in Tangent 6.5. Spell-out the names of uncommon political parties not listed there. Identify candidates and officials with no formal party affiliation as independent (I).

Include the official’s represented jurisdiction—state, city, county, district, precinct, ward, or similar—separated from the political party with a single hyphen or dash. Abbreviate U.S. states and territories using their two-letter postal abbreviations (see Chicago 10.27). Label numbered legislative districts with the state abbreviation and the district’s ordinal numeral. Spell-out the names of other jurisdictions.

Examples of this style:

  • President Joe Biden (D)
  • Senator Mark Warner (D-VA)
  • Representative Jennifer Wexton (D-VA 10th)
  • Loudoun County Supervisor Matt Letourneau (R-Dulles)

An official’s name should be preceded by the title for the position to which they were elected or appointed, not to their secondary or administrative titles. For example, do not refer to “Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi (D),” but to “Representative Nancy Pelosi (D-CA 12th).” If the secondary or administrative role is relevant, note it in the text.

If a person holds a formally nonpartisan office, do not include any party appellation even if the individual’s political party membership is known. If relevant, party membership or endorsements may be noted in the text.

Apply the same style described above to foreign political officials but spell out the names of all foreign political parties even if they share a name with a U.S. political party. Also spell out the names of all political subdivisions.

Examples of this style:

  • U.K. Prime Minister Boris Johnson (Conservative)
  • Chinese President Xi Jinping (Communist)

If the official previously held other offices, this may be noted in the text, but the initial reference should always refer to the office currently held.

Officials no longer serving in office should be identified at first reference using the civil title styles described above prefaced with the word “former.” When an individual has held multiple offices, the highest of them should generally be used, even if it is not the office most recently held. Other previously held offices may be noted in the text.

Examples of this style:

  • Former President Donald Trump (R)
  • Former Representative Barbara Comstock (R-VA 10th)

When writing about past events, it may be appropriate to refer to an official using the office they held at that time. In these cases, the title should be prefaced with “then” instead of “former”—for example, “then-President Jimmy Carter (D).”

In the U.S., offices should be ranked in the following order of precedence:

  1. President of the United States
  2. Chief Justice of the United States
  3. Vice President of the United States
  4. Presidential cabinet secretary
  5. Member of the U.S. Senate
  6. Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court
  7. Governor of a U.S. state or territory
  8. Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
  9. Other state or territorial elective office (e.g., Lieutenant Governor)
  10. Justice of a U.S. state supreme court or equivalent
  11. U.S. federal court judge
  12. Member of a U.S. state or territorial legislature
  13. Mayor of a city or equivalent
  14. State or local judge
  15. Member of a city council, county board, or equivalent
  16. Other offices

6.2: Changes of political party

The civil title styles described in Tangent 6.1 should refer to the political party under whose banner an official was elected or appointed to the office with which they are being identified. If the official subsequently changed party affiliation this may be noted in the text, but the parenthetical reference should not be changed until that official has been reelected or reappointed under that new banner.

If relevant, previous party affiliations may also be noted in the text. If an individual was elected as an independent but caucuses with or otherwise affiliates with a party while in office, this may also be noted in the text, but the parenthetical reference should continue to identify the official as independent.

6.3: Election endorsements

In political endorsements, each candidate appearing on the official ballot should be categorized as a “major candidate” or “minor candidate.” Major candidates are those expected to receive five percent or more of the popular vote. Minor candidates are those expected to receive less than five percent of the popular vote.

Write-in candidates should not be considered unless they are expected to receive five percent or more of the popular vote. In these cases, write-in candidates expected to receive twenty-five percent or more of the popular vote should be categorized as “major candidates,” and those expected to receive five percent or more of the popular vote, but less than twenty-five percent, should be categorized as “minor candidates.”

In endorsements and recommendations, evaluate the candidates in the following order:

  1. Incumbent seeking reelection, regardless of major or minor status
  2. Major candidates, alphabetized by last name
  3. Minor candidates, alphabetized by last name

6.4: Election results

In news-style and tabular reporting of election results, list all candidates who appeared on the ballot in alphabetical order by last name without regard for major or minor status or the ordering on the actual ballot. Write-in candidates are normally combined under a listing for “Other,” but may be tabulated separately in post-election coverage.

Numeric election results should not be published until after the scheduled poll closure time in the state holding the election, or until after the state’s election officials have begun publishing results. Election calls or projections may be made based on official results, exit polling, and media calls, but only when there is reasonable certainty. In close races, a call should not be made until official results indicate that other outcomes are extremely unlikely.

In presidential elections, no state’s result should be called or projected until after all polls in the state are scheduled to have closed or until the state’s election officials have begun publishing results. Be especially aware of states that cross multiple time zones or allow localities to choose their own poll closure times.

Until an elected candidate takes office, continue using their previous civil title (if any) as described in Tangent 6.1. They may be described in the text as “-elect” (for example, “president-elect”), but this should not be treated as a formal title. It should not be capitalized and should not precede the name.

6.5: U.S. political parties

The political party system in the United States began around 1787. The dominant parties have changed over time as some dissolve and new ones emerge, but at any given time there have usually been two major parties and several smaller parties. In the Tangent style, parties are categorized and abbreviated in a standard manner for use in parenthetical civil title references (see Tangent 6.1). Closely related parties are grouped together under a single name and abbreviation.

Parties currently operating are included if they are formal, independent organizations that select or endorse political candidates in the United States of America or the Commonwealth of Virginia and have earned at least 0.1% of the popular vote in the most recent major state or federal elections.

Parties that are defunct or no longer have significant support are included if they were formal, independent organizations that selected or endorsed political candidates in the United States of America or the Commonwealth of Virginia and earned at least five percent of the popular vote in at least one major state or federal election.

Some loose organizations, factions of other parties, and parties that do not qualify under the above general criteria are included if they are historically notable or are closely related to parties that do qualify.

When possible, parties are listed by their official names with other common names or nicknames listed in brackets. When multiple parties share similar or identical names, the party’s founder, an early key figure, or another unique identifier is included parenthetically for the purpose of differentiation.

Following is a list of U.S. political parties from 1787 to present, broken into four categories:

“Current major parties” are those whose candidates have earned five percent or more of the popular vote in the most recent election for President of the United States, U.S. Senate from Virginia, or Governor of Virginia:

  • D: Democratic; incorporates:
    • Democratic-Republican (Jackson faction) (1824-1825) (see note 1)
    • Jacksonians [Jacksonian Democrats] (1825-1828)
    • Democratic Party (Jackson) (1828-1860; 1861-present)
    • Democratic Party (Douglas faction) (1860-1861)
  • R: Republican; incorporates:
    • Liberty Party (1840-1848)
    • Free Soil Party (1848-1854)
    • Opposition Party (Northern) (1854)
    • Republican Party (Fremont) [Grand Old Party] (1854-1864; 1868-present)
    • National Union Party (1864-1868)

“Current minor parties” are those whose candidates have earned 0.1% or more of the popular vote in the most recent election for President of the United States, U.S. Senate from Virginia, or Governor of Virginia, but less than five percent:

  • G: Green; incorporates:
    • Association of State Green Parties (1996-2001)
    • Green Party U.S. (2001-present)
  • L: Libertarian; incorporates:
    • Libertarian Party (1971-present)

“Former major parties” are those whose candidates have earned five percent or more of the popular vote in multiple past elections for President of the United States, U.S. Senate from Virginia, or Governor of Virginia, but have since disbanded or no longer draw 0.1% or more of the popular vote:

  • DR: Democratic-Republican; incorporates:
    • Anti-Federalist faction (1787-1789)
    • Jeffersonian faction [Anti-Administration] (1789-1791)
    • Republican Party (Jefferson) [Democratic-Republican] (1791-1824) (see note 1)
  • DS: Democratic (Southern) (see note 2); incorporates:
    • Nullifier Party (1828-1839)
    • Democratic Party (Breckinridge faction) [Fire-Eaters] (1860-1861)
    • Democratic Party (Confederate States of America) (1861-1864)
    • States’ Rights Democratic Party [Dixiecrats] (1948)
    • American Independent Party (1967-1969)
  • FD: Federalist (see note 3); incorporates:
    • Federalist faction (Publius) (1787-1789)
    • Federalist Party (Hamilton) (1789-1824)
  • RP: Reform; incorporates:
    • Perot faction (1992-1995)
    • Reform Party (1995-present)
  • SC: Socialist; incorporates:
    • Social Democracy of America (Debs) (1897-1898)
    • Social Democratic Party of America (Debs) (1898-1901)
    • Socialist Party of America (Debs) (1901-1957)
    • Socialist Party-Social Democratic Federation (SP-SDF) (1957-1972)
    • Socialist Party USA (Zeidler) (1973-present)
  • SD: Social Democratic; incorporates:
    • Social Democratic Federation (Waldman) (1936-1957)
    • Democratic Socialist Federation (1957-1972)
    • Social Democrats USA (Kemble) (1972-2005)
    • Social Democrats USA (Friend) (2009-present)
  • WH: Whig; incorporates:
    • Democratic-Republican (Adams faction) (1824-1825) (see note 1)
    • National Republican Party [Anti-Jacksonians] (1825-1833)
    • Whig Party (1833-1854)
    • Opposition Party (Southern) (1854-1860)
    • Constitutional Union Party (1860-1861)

“Other parties” are those whose candidates have earned more than five percent of the popular vote in only one election for President of the United States, U.S. Senate from Virginia, or Governor of Virginia, or are otherwise notable:

  • AM: Anti-Masonic; incorporates:
    • Anti-Masonic Party (1828-1840)
  • CM: Communist; incorporates:
    • Communist Party USA (1919-present)
  • KN: Know-Nothing; incorporates:
    • Native American Party [Know-Nothing Party] (1844-1855)
    • American Party [Know-Nothing Party] (1855-1860)
  • LF: La Follette Progressive; incorporates:
    • Progressive Party (La Follette) (1924-1934)
  • PE: People’s; incorporates:
    • People’s Party [Populist Party] (1892-1909)
  • PR: Progressive; incorporates:
    • Progressive Party (Roosevelt) [Bull Moose Party] (1912-1916)
  • RE: Readjuster; incorporates:
    • Readjuster Party (Virginia) (1877-1895)
  • CO: Conservative; incorporates:
    • Conservative Party of Virginia (1965)

Note 1: The Democratic-Republican Party, which was founded by Thomas Jefferson and was officially known as the Republican Party, broke into two factions in 1824 and dissolved soon after. These factions are categorized with their successor parties. The faction led by Andrew Jackson developed into the Democratic Party. The faction led by John Quincy Adams developed into the National Republican Party and then the Whig Party.

Note 2: The party labeled “Democratic (Southern)” is not a single formal entity. The label represents the southern wing of the Democratic Party during several periods where it operated independently or semi-independently from the main party organization.

Note 3: The first President of the United States, George Washington, was elected as an independent and should be labeled as such even though he aligned closely with the Federalist Party. Washington is, thus far, the only U.S. president who did not have a formal party affiliation.

6.6: U.S. government agencies

For the full names and preferred abbreviations of U.S. government departments, agencies, and other entities, and for general style guidance on matters relating to the U.S. government, refer to the following resources:

Adapt style guidance as needed to conform with Tangent and Chicago.

6.7: Matters of sovereignty

The government that is sovereign over a particular area should generally be treated as the authority in official matters there, but only as far as possible without violating the principle of truth and accuracy (see Tangent 5.1).

It is usually clear what government is legitimately sovereign; in most cases, a single government exercises both de jure (“by law”) and de facto (“in fact”) authority over a given territory. But a government may have de jure sovereignty over an area where does not exercise real control, or it may have de facto control over an area where it does not have a recognized legal claim. For example, the government of Ukraine is the internationally recognized de jure sovereign of Crimea, but the government of Russia currently exercises de facto control there.

When sovereignty over an area is disputed, preference should normally be given to the government that exercises stable de facto control over the largest or most important parts of it. For example, the government of the Republic of China (ROC) should be treated as the sovereign government of Taiwan, and the government of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) should be treated as the sovereign government of mainland China. Their de jure claims over each other’s territory and the status of international recognition may be described in the text if necessary. Likewise, in the previous example of the Crimea, the government of Russia should be treated as sovereign there for as long as it exercises de facto control.

When no single government maintains stable de facto sovereignty over an area, its most recent or most well-known name should be used and the political situation should be described in the text. For further guidance on country names, see Tangent 4.5.

7: Matters of Religion

7.1: Religious style, usage, and spelling

(Modifies Chicago 8.26, 8.91-111, and 10.22.)

Refer to the following primary religious style, usage, and spelling guides:

Throughout this guide, the primary religion guide is referred to as CNS and the primary religion dictionary is referred to as the Catholic Dictionary.

Because CNS is intended for writers using the A.P. Stylebook, its style guidance is not compatible with Chicago and must be adapted. Its usage guidance, however, should normally be considered prescriptive except where it conflicts with Tangent. Spellings of religious terms in the Catholic Dictionary should normally be considered prescriptive as well, unless contradicted by Tangent or CNS.

For religious terms not appearing in the Catholic Dictionary, refer to the standard primary and secondary dictionaries (see Tangent 4.1). For further guidance, the following secondary religious style and usage guides may be consulted in the listed order of preference, but their guidance should not be considered prescriptive:

After these, the religious sections of the primary and secondary style guides (see Tangent 2.1) should be consulted. Other religious guides and references may be consulted, though their guidance should also not be considered prescriptive.

Religious beliefs should be treated with respect and deference as much as possible without sacrificing credibility or violating the principle of truth and accuracy (see Tangent 5.1).

7.2: Judaism and Christianity

The primary Christian holy book is the Bible, which is a compilation of books and letters that are traditionally divided into the Old and New Testaments. The primary Jewish holy book is the Tanakh, which is nearly the same as the Christian Old Testament but has some differences in order and interpretation. Most religious Jews and Christians believe, to varying degrees, that their scriptures are divinely inspired.

It is often preferable to refer to the Tanakh or Old Testament as the Hebrew Scriptures, and the New Testament as the Christian Scriptures, out of respect for the two faiths’ shared heritage. In Christian contexts, referring to them as the Old Testament and the New Testament is acceptable. In Jewish contexts, referring to the scripture as the Tanakh is also acceptable.

As the source for direct quotes from the Bible, and for prescriptive guidance on names and spellings of the books of scripture, refer to the following primary English translation:

For further detail and alternate interpretations, refer to the following secondary English translations of the Bible in the listed order of preference:

Catholic translations should be preferred for general scripture reference, but Protestant and Jewish translations may be consulted for comparative purposes, especially when discussing differences of interpretation between Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish sects.

For more in-depth study of scripture, refer to the following translations and their parallel texts:

Tangent prefers the Revised Standard Version, Catholic Edition, while CNS prefers the New American Bible, Revised Edition. With this notable exception, CNS guidance on scripture, with adaptation for compatibility with Chicago, should generally be followed.

When referring specifically to the daily Mass readings of the Catholic Church, it may be preferable to quote directly from the Lectionary for Mass for Use in the Dioceses of the United States, published by the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, which is based primarily on the New American Bible, Revised Edition.

7.3: Islam

The primary Islamic holy book is the Qur’an, which is a collection of chapters (or surahs) that most religious Muslims believe were dictated by God (Allah) to Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel. “Qur’an” is the preferred spelling in the Tangent style. (Chicago prefers “Koran” and CNS prefers “Quran.”)

As the source for direct quotes from an English translation of the Qu’ran, and for prescriptive guidance on names and spellings from the Qur’an, refer to the following primary English translation:

For further detail and alternate interpretations, refer to the following secondary English translations of the Qur’an in the listed order of preference:

According to traditional Islamic belief, only the original Arabic text is the Qur’an. When quoting from translations into English or other languages, state clearly that you are quoting from a translation of the Qur’an, not from the Qur’an itself.

7.4: Other religions

Most religious texts were composed in languages other than English. Translation of these texts into English requires interpretation, and no translation is perfect or universally accepted.

Generally, when quoting from or analyzing religious texts, it is preferable to use translations made by and accepted by adherents of the faith. If no single translation is universally or nearly universally accepted, then a selection of the most widely accepted translations should be consulted. Outside scholarly translations may also be consulted if needed.

8: Science, Measurement, and Time

8.1: Scientific style, usage, and spelling

(Modifies Chicago 8.119-8.152 and 10.49-10.68.)

Refer to the following primary scientific and medical style, usage, and spelling guides in the listed order of preference:

Guidance in these publications should not be considered prescriptive.

8.2: Measurements, generally

Use weights and measures defined by U.S. law and the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). NIST defines and recognizes both the International System of Units (S.I. or metric system) and the U.S. Customary Unit System (imperial system). The metric system should generally be preferred.

Detailed information about these standards can be found in the following documents:

Some metric units are now well understood by U.S. readers—liters for fluids, grams for lightweight objects, millimeters and centimeters for short lengths, and meters over short distances. These can often be used without conversion, but there are exceptions. For example, although most U.S. readers are familiar with one-liter soft drinks, the idea of purchasing gasoline by the liter is practically incomprehensible. When writing for an audience including people from the U.S., add a parenthetical conversion to the equivalent U.S. measure unless you are certain that a metric reference will be understood.

In some cases, such as those described in Tangent 8.3, non-metric measurements should be used because they are more familiar or useful or because they are widely adopted in a specialized field.

Normally, precision should be maintained when converting between measurements. A measurement expressed to the hundredths place in one system should be converted to a measurement also expressed to the hundredths place. An exception should be made when converting a whole integer measure, or when measurements differ by an order of magnitude. For example, 1 mile is 1.6 kilometers, and 10.5 milliliters is 0.36 fluid ounces.

8.3: Measurements, special cases

In some contexts, including those described in this section, non-metric measurements may be preferred. Include a parenthetical conversion to the equivalent metric measure. Some specialized measurements may be unfamiliar to both U.S. and non-U.S. audiences and should be converted to both metric and U.S. measurements.

In aviation and maritime contexts, use nautical miles for distance and knots for speed. In aviation contexts, use feet for altitude.

In U.S. travel contexts, use miles for distance, miles-per-hour for speed, and gallons for volume of fuel, but when writing about travel in other countries use kilometers, kilometers-per-hour, and liters.

For ambient indoor or outdoor temperature, use degrees Fahrenheit. Temperatures in scientific contexts should normally be expressed in Kelvin or degrees Celsius. In nonscientific contexts, degrees Fahrenheit are usually expressed as whole integers. Degrees Celsius, which are less precise, are usually expressed in tenths. For example, 70 degrees Fahrenheit is 21.1 degrees Celsius, and 32.5 degrees Celsius is 91 degrees Fahrenheit (rounded up from 90.5).

8.4: Time and time zones

Measure time according to U.S. law and U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) standards for the Eastern Time Zone (ET; UTC-5), including daylight saving time (UTC-4) from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November.

Detailed information about U.S. standard time can be found in the following document:

When possible, time should be synchronized within ten seconds of U.S. standard time. The following are reliable time sources that can be used for manual or electronic synchronization:

Time zones other than ET may be used when relevant, especially when writing about current events occurring in other places. Normally it is best to express time in ET with the other time zone added parenthetically, although the positions may be reversed when emphasizing an event’s local time. For example, 5:40 p.m. ET (6:40 a.m. JST) or 10:25 a.m. CEST (4:25 a.m. ET).

Although times should normally be shown in ET, it is best to store time information in databases and other electronic media in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) or Unix time, whichever is most well supported by the system being used. Both systems are time-zone agnostic and can be easily converted to ET or any other time zone.

8.5: Map projections

Because the Earth is a roughly spherical three-dimensional body, depicting it accurately in two dimensions presents difficulties. Sometimes it is preferable to use an orthographic perspective view (i.e., a rendering of a digital globe). For other two-dimensional renderings, many map projection systems have been developed. Each has different strengths and weaknesses.

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) produces a Map Projections poster that has examples of the most common projections and describes the key attributes of each. When possible, choose the most appropriate projection for the situation. When reproducing maps made by others, take note of what projection its creators used. In either case, it may be necessary to describe a projection’s weaknesses (e.g., “distances are not shown to scale”).

­For rectangular maps of the world, the Miller cylindrical projection is usually the best choice. It is a compromise projection that attempts to balance conformality, accurate area, and accurate distance. A good nonrectangular option is the Robinson projection, which has less distortion near the poles than the Miller projection.

For maps of the entire United States, or areas of similar size, the Albers equal-area conic projection is usually the best choice. In this projection, map elements are proportionally sized but there is some distortion of shape and distance.

For maps of states, cities, and regions, the Lambert conformal conic projection is usually the best choice. In this projection, map elements are shaped correctly but there is some distortion of size and distance.

9: Technology and Accessibility

9.1: Overview

Chicago’s chapters 1 and 2 offer guidance for electronic publications and manuscripts, but that guidance is oriented toward standalone e-books and documents. Little guidance is provided for electronic publication in a website format. This section provides technical guidance and principles for more general website publication.

9.2: Web browser support

There are hundreds, or perhaps thousands, of possible combinations of computer operating systems and web browsers. It would be impossible to proactively support all of them. But website publishers must take care to ensure that their content is made available to the widest possible audience. A website that looks incorrect or is inaccessible to a reader undermines the credibility of the content published there.

On desktop and laptop computers, there are four widely used operating systems: Apple MacOS, Google Chrome OS, Linux (various distributions), and Microsoft Windows. On mobile devices like smartphones, there are two widely used operating systems: Apple iOS and Google Android. On tablet devices, some manufacturers install laptop operating systems and others choose mobile ones—common tablets run Apple iPadOS (a variant of iOS), Google Android (or its derivative, Amazon Fire OS), Google Chrome OS, and Microsoft Windows.

Supporting the default, built-in web browsers in the most recent version of each of these operating systems is the bare minimum of acceptable website support. Apple Safari is the default browser in each of Apple’s desktop and mobile operating systems. Google Chrome is the default browser in each of Google’s (though Android derivatives like Amazon Fire OS may have other defaults). Microsoft Edge is the default browser in Windows. Mozilla Firefox is the default browser in most mainstream Linux distributions.

A website designed to work properly in the above listed browsers and operating systems is likely to work properly in most others. Several of those browsers are available in other operating systems, and less common browsers are often based on the same browser display engines used by the major ones. A website publisher may of course choose to support the less common browsers and operating systems as well.

When determining what browsers to support, consult the website’s usage statistics. They are likely to resemble broader browser usage trends (see Usage share of web browsers on Wikipedia), but a particular website’s statistics may differ, especially if it has a specialized audience. It is usually best to support and test in any browser that accounts for at least three percent of a website’s readership, but a website publisher may set a different threshold.

9.3: Standards and compliance

The Internet uses various technical standards to help ensure interoperability between the billions of devices that use it.

Websites deliver documents to web browsers in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), define styles with Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), and control interactive and programmatic features with ECMAScript (also called JavaScript or JS). Data is often stored and interchanged in Extensible Markup Language (XML) or the JSON Data Interchange Syntax (JSON).

Countless other formats and document types can be posted online for viewing or download, but those described above are the foundations of Internet publishing. Ideally, all HTML, CSS, JS, XML, and JSON should be written in compliance with those formats’ published standards. Standards compliant code is more likely to work properly in current and future web browsers. Utilize code validation services to improve compliance.

Following are standards and validators for each of these primary Internet formats:

9.4: Accessibility

There is more to publishing a website than ensuring compatibility with the most common browsers and compliance with web standards. The Internet is a great equalizer and content published on it should be made accessible to all, including people with disabilities.

The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), the same standards organization that developed many of the key web publishing standards, also produces the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG). These guidelines are intended to “make content accessible to a wider range of people with disabilities, including blindness and low vision, deafness and hearing loss, learning disabilities, cognitive limitations, limited movement, speech disabilities, photosensitivity[,] and combinations of these.”

Make a reasonable effort to comply with the latest WCAG guidelines. Specifically, ensure that non-text content includes text alternatives, that the website is navigable by keyboard, and that text is readable and has sufficient color contrast. These make website content available to people with disabilities, but also improve usability and readability for all users.

Refer to the following WCAG standard document and accessibility tester:

10: Holiday Observances

10.1: Overview

Mark important holidays with a special image and message appropriate for that holiday. If two or more holidays occur on the same day those listed earlier in the following sections take precedence over those listed later. Holidays to be marked include Catholic Christian observances, civil holidays in the United States, Commonwealth of Virginia, and Loudoun County, and other personal and cultural observances.

10.2: Catholic Christian holidays

Typical dates are listed below for each of these holidays. Observances may be moved in accordance with Canon Law, national norms, and determinations by local bishops. Always consult the Liturgical Calendar for the Dioceses of the United States of America, which is published annually by the USCCB Committee on Divine Worship, and the Arlington Diocese website to verify observance dates.

The following religious holidays should be observed:

  • Holy Days of Obligation in the United States (Canon 1246 and S. Norms):
    • Solemnity of Mary, the Holy Mother of God – January 1
    • Solemnity of the Ascension of the Lord – Sunday after forty days after Easter
    • Solemnity of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary – August 15
    • Solemnity of All Saints – November 1
    • Solemnity of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary – December 8
    • Solemnity of the Nativity of the Lord (Christmas) – December 25
  • Days of Fasting and Abstinence (Canon 1251):
    • Ash Wednesday – forty-six days before Easter
    • Friday of the Passion of the Lord (Good Friday) – Friday before Easter
  • Principal celebrations of the liturgical year (USCCB Calendar):
    • Solemnity of the Resurrection of the Lord (Easter) – Sunday after the full moon after March 21
    • Solemnity of Pentecost – fifty days after Easter
    • Solemnity of the Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ (Corpus Christi) – second Sunday after Pentecost
    • First Sunday of Advent – fourth Sunday before Christmas
  • Other solemnities in the United States (USCCB Calendar):
    • Solemnity of the Epiphany of the Lord – Sunday after January 1
    • Solemnity of Saint Joseph, Spouse of the Blessed Virgin Mary – March 19
    • Solemnity of the Annunciation of the Lord – March 25
    • Solemnity of the Most Holy Trinity – first Sunday after Pentecost
    • Solemnity of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus – Friday after the second Sunday after Pentecost
    • Solemnity of the Nativity of Saint John the Baptist – June 24
    • Solemnity of Saints Peter and Paul, Apostles – June 29
    • Solemnity of Our Lord Jesus Christ, King of the Universe – last Sunday before Advent
  • Selected other Catholic observances (USCCB Calendar):
    • Memorial of Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton, Religious – January 4
    • Day of Prayer for the Legal Protection of Unborn Children – January 22
    • Memorial of Saint Isidore, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – April 4
    • Palm Sunday of the Passion of the Lord – one week before Easter
    • Thursday of Holy Week (Holy Thursday) – Thursday before Easter
    • Holy Saturday – Saturday before Easter
    • Memorial of Saint Veronica – July 12 (details)
    • Memorial of Blessed Michael J. McGivney – August 13 (details)
    • Memorial of Saint Maximilian Kolbe, Priest and Martyr – August 14
    • Memorial of Saint Therese of the Child Jesus, Virgin and Doctor of the Church – October 1
    • Memorial of Blessed Carlo Acutis – October 12 (details)
    • Feast of Saints Simon and Jude, Apostles – October 28
    • Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe – December 12

10.3: Federal, state, and local holidays

Typical dates are listed below for each of these holidays. Observances may be moved in accordance with the law, especially when they fall on a weekend, so always consult the latest U.S. Office of Personnel Management list of federal holidays and the Virginia Department of Human Resource Management pay and holiday calendar to verify observance dates.

The following government recognized holidays should be observed:

  • U.S. Federal Holidays (5 USC §6103):
    • New Year’s Day – January 1
    • Birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. – third Monday in January
    • Washington’s Birthday – third Monday in February
    • Memorial Day – last Monday in May (36 USC 116)
    • Juneteenth National Independence Day – June 19
    • Independence Day – July 4
    • Labor Day – first Monday in September
    • Columbus Day – second Monday in October (36 USC 107)
    • Veterans Day – November 11 (36 USC 145)
    • Thanksgiving Day – fourth Thursday in November
    • Christmas Day – December 25
  • Virginia State Holidays (VA Code 2.2-3300):
    • New Year’s Day – January 1
    • Martin Luther King Jr. Day – third Monday in January
    • George Washington Day – third Monday in February
    • Memorial Day – last Monday in May
    • Juneteenth – June 19
    • Independence Day – July 4
    • Labor Day – first Monday in September
    • Columbus Day & Yorktown Victory Day – second Monday in October
    • Election Day – Tuesday after the first Monday in November
    • Veterans Day – November 11
    • Thanksgiving Day – fourth Thursday in November
    • Day After Thanksgiving – Friday after the fourth Thursday in November
    • Christmas – December 25
  • Loudoun County Holidays (Loudoun Holiday Calendar):
    • New Year’s Day – January 1
    • Martin Luther King Jr. Day – third Monday in January
    • Presidents Day – third Monday in February
    • Memorial Day – last Monday in May
    • Juneteenth – June 19
    • Independence Day – July 4
    • Labor Day – first Monday in September
    • Indigenous Peoples’ Day – second Monday in October
    • Election Day – Tuesday after the first Monday in November
    • Veterans Day – November 11
    • Thanksgiving Day – fourth Thursday in November
    • Day After Thanksgiving – Friday after the fourth Thursday in November
    • Christmas – December 25
  • Selected other federal and state observances:

10.4: Personal and other holidays

The following personal and other holidays should be observed:

  • Personal holidays
    • Confirmation Day – April 11
    • Wedding Anniversary – May 28
    • Birthday – October 28
    • Baptism Day – December 20
  • Family and cultural holidays
    • Chinese New Year (農曆新年) – new moon between January 21 and February 20
    • Polish Constitution Day – May 3
    • Mayflower Day – September 16
    • Chinese Mid-Autumn Festival (中秋節) – full moon between September 8 and October 7

11: Law and Copyright

11.1: Civil law

Comply with all duly enacted, constitutionally permissible laws, ordinances, and regulations of the United States of America, the Commonwealth of Virginia, and Loudoun County, Virginia. There is no legal or moral obligation to comply with laws, ordinances, and regulations that are enacted outside of the constitutional authorities granted to the government by the affirmative consent of the people, or those that conflict with the higher laws of God and nature.

Refer to the following sources for these laws, ordinances, and regulations:

11.2: Canon law

Comply with all duly enacted laws and norms promulgated by Holy See, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, and the Bishop of the Diocese of Arlington.

Refer to the following official sources for these laws and norms:

In addition, give careful attention to Inter Mirificia, the decree on the media of social communications, promulgated by Pope Saint Paul VI on December 4, 1963.

11.3: Copyright, generally

Written content should normally be published under the following license:

Written content intended for sharing and reuse should be published under one of the less restrictive Creative Commons licenses. Content that must be more tightly restricted can be published under a standard “All Rights Reserved” license.

A distinction should be made between published content, which should be made available under the above terms, and website style or design elements which can—and should—be more tightly restricted with appropriate copyright and trademark protections.

11.4: Copyright of this guide

This document, the Tangent Style Guide (Eighth Edition), is licensed under the following license:

Quoting from the Creative Commons summary, this license allows you to “copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format,” and “remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.” The only significant restriction is that you “must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.”

If you choose to use this style guide without modification and without copying or redistributing it, attribution is appreciated but is not required.

12: History, Editions, and Adaptation

12.1: History of editions

All editions of the Tangent style guide have incorporated or were based upon a published style guide in general use. Following is a brief history of editions:

  • First Edition (approx. 1995 to approx. 2000): MLA Handbook (Fourth Edition) with notes
  • Second Edition (approx. 2000 to approx. 2003): MLA Handbook (Fifth Edition) with notes
  • Third Edition (approx. 2003 to approx. 2009): MLA Handbook (Sixth Edition) with notes
  • Fourth Edition (approx. 2009 to May 31, 2012): MLA Handbook (Seventh Edition) with notes
  • Fifth Edition (June 1, 2012, to December 31, 2016): Chicago Manual of Style (Sixteenth Edition) with notes
  • Sixth Edition (January 1, 2017, to August 31, 2017): Modified Chicago Manual of Style (Sixteenth Edition)
  • Seventh Edition (September 1, 2017, to June 30, 2020): Modified Chicago Manual of Style (Seventeenth Edition)
  • Eighth Edition (July 1, 2020, to present): Tangent Style Guide and Chicago Manual of Style (Seventeenth Edition)

12.2: Revisions of this edition

  • 8.0 – Eighth edition, effective July 1, 2020.
    • Guide completely rewritten and reorganized.
  • 8.1 – Eighth edition, first revision, effective July 22, 2020.
    • Added “2: Plurals for borrowed nouns” and renumbered subsequent sections.
    • Expanded and updated “3: Capitalize the word Internet.”
    • Expanded and updated “5: U.S. political parties.”
    • Expanded and updated “7: Matters of Religion.”
    • Re-licensed under the CC BY 4.0 license as described in “4: Copyright of this guide.”
    • Other minor corrections and clarifications.
  • 8.2 – Eighth edition, second revision, effective September 9, 2020.
    • Added “5: Names of countries.”
    • Expanded and updated “5: Credibility and Independence.”
    • Expanded and updated “8: Science, Measurement, and Time.”
    • Added “9: Technology and Accessibility” and renumbered subsequent sections.
    • Other minor corrections and clarifications.
  • 8.3 – Eighth edition, third revision, effective January 2, 2021.
    • Added “6: Bibliographies.”
    • Added “5: Data and media are mass nouns” and renumbered subsequent sections.
    • Added “4: Election results” and renumbered subsequent sections.
    • Added “13: Works Consulted.”
    • Other minor corrections and clarifications.
  • 8.4 – Eighth edition, fourth revision, effective June 9, 2021.
    • Added “4: Headline-style capitalization” and renumbered subsequent sections.
    • Updated “5: U.S. political parties” to reflect the outcomes of recent elections.
    • Added “3: Measurements, special cases” and renumbered subsequent sections.
    • Moved history and revision information to “12: History, Editions, and Adaptation” and renumbered subsequent sections.
    • Added “3: Adaptation.”
    • Reorganized and updated “13: Works Consulted.”
    • Other minor corrections and clarifications.
  • 8.5 – Eighth edition, fifth revision, effective September 24, 2021.
    • Added “7: Matters of sovereignty.”
    • Technical updates in “9: Technology and Accessibility.”
    • Other minor corrections and clarifications.

12.3: Adaptation

The Tangent Style Guide may be adapted for use by other websites and publications. The license described in Tangent 11.4 allows for modification and republication with attribution. If you are adapting this guide for use elsewhere, several sections are likely to need revision:

  • Change references to Off on a Tangent to the name of the website or publication. Consider renaming the guide and changing all references to Tangent
  • Tangent 6 is U.S.-centric and will likely need revision to better serve websites or publications in other countries.
  • Tangent 7 will likely need some revisions for websites or publications authored by non-Catholics.
  • Tangent 10 will likely need significant revision to reflect the author’s religious, national, and personal calendar. For less personal websites and publications, it should be removed entirely.
  • Tangent 11.1 should be revised to refer to the appropriate civil jurisdictions where the website or publication is located.
  • Tangent 11.2 should be revised to refer to the appropriate canonical jurisdictions where the website or publication is located. If the author is non-Catholic, the section may need to be removed or revised.

13: Works Consulted

13.1: General style and usage

Associated Press. “A.P. Stylebook,” 2021.

Butterfield, Jeremy, ed. Fowler’s Dictionary of Modern English Usage. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2015.

Garner, Bryan A. Garner’s Modern English Usage. Fourth Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2016.

Gilman, E. Ward, John M. Morse, Kathleen M. Doherty, et al., eds. Merriam-Webster’s Concise Dictionary of English Usage. Springfield, MA: Merriam Webster Inc., 2002.

GLAAD. Media Reference Guide. Tenth Edition. New York, NY, 2016.

Hacker, Diana, Nancy Sommers, Tom Jehn, and Jane Rosenzweig. A Writer’s Reference. Sixth Edition. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007.

Modern Language Association of America. MLA Handbook. Ninth Edition. New York, NY, 2021.

Siegal, Allan M., William G. Connolly, Philip B. Corbett, et al. New York Times Manual of Style and Usage. Fifth Edition. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press, 2015.

Strunk, William, and E.B. White. The Elements of Style. Fourth Edition. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2000.

Thomson Reuters. Reuters Handbook of Journalism. Second Online Edition., 2008.

Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. Ninth Edition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2017.

University of Chicago Press. “Chicago Manual of Style Online,” 2021.

13.2: General dictionaries

Dictionary.com LLC. “Dictionary.com,” 2020.

Dictionary.com LLC and Oxford University Press. “Lexico.com U.S. Dictionary,” 2020.

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. “American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,” 2021.

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. “Webster’s New World College Dictionary.” A.P. Stylebook, 2021.

Merriam Webster Inc. “Merriam-Webster Unabridged,” 2020.

Merriam Webster Inc. “Merriam-Webster.com,” 2021.

Oxford University Press. “Oxford English Dictionary,” 2020.

Random House. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary. Second Edition. New York, NY, 2005.

Wikimedia Foundation and Contributors. “Wiktionary (English),” 2020.

13.3: Government

Commonwealth of Virginia. “Code of Virginia.” Legislative Information System, 2020.

Gilbert, Tony N., James E. Bender, Peter W. Binns, et al., eds. GPO Style Manual. 2016 Edition. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office, 2016.

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. “World Factbook,” 2020.

U.S. House of Representatives. “United States Code,” 2020.

13.4: Religious

Catholic News Service. CNS Stylebook on Religion. Fourth Edition. Washington, DC, 2012.

Collins, Billie Jean, Bob Buller, and John F. Kutsko, eds. SBL Handbook of Style. Second Edition. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press, 2014.

Hardon, John A. Catholic Dictionary. New York, NY: Image, 2013.

Jones, Terry. “CatholicSaints.info,” 2021.

Pope Paul VI. Inter Mirifica. The Holy See, 1963.

Religion Newswriters Foundation. “Religion Stylebook,” 2020.

The Holy See. “Code of Canon Law,” 2019.

U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops. “Complementary Norms for the United States,” 2020.

U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops. Liturgical Calendar for the Dioceses of the United States of America. 2021 Edition. Washington, DC, 2019.

13.5: Scientific

Ayubi, Emily L., Chelsea L. Bromstad Lee, Timothy L. McAdoo, et al., eds. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Seventh Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2020.

Barton, John, Breyanna Blackwell, Tina G. Butcher, et al., eds. Specifications, Tolerances, and Other Technical Requirements for Weighing and Measuring Devices (NIST Handbook 44). 2020 Edition. Washington, DC: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2019.

Christiansen, Stacy L., Cheryl Iverson, Annette Flanagin, et al. AMA Manual of Style. Eleventh Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2020.

Coghill, Anne M., and Lorrin R. Garson, eds. ACS Style Guide. Third Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2006.

International Bureau of Weights and Measures. International System of Units (SI). Ninth Edition. Sèvres, France, 2019.

Kirkpatrick, Andrew, Joshue O’Connor, Alastair Campbell, and Michael Cooper. Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.1. World Wide Web Consortium, 2018.

Lombardi, Michael A. NIST Time and Frequency Services (SP 432). Washington, DC: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2002.

U.S. Geological Survey. “Map Projections.” USGS Publications Warehouse, 1993.

Scott Bradford is a writer and technologist who has been putting his opinions online since 1995. He believes in three inviolable human rights: life, liberty, and property. He is a Catholic Christian who worships the trinitarian God described in the Nicene Creed. Scott is a husband, nerd, pet lover, and AMC/Jeep enthusiast with a B.S. degree in public administration from George Mason University.